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<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">inspect</code> — Inspect live objects</a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#types-and-members">Types and members</a></li>
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 <section id="module-inspect">
<h1><a class="reference internal" href="#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">inspect</code></a> — Inspect live objects<a class="headerlink" href="#module-inspect" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
Source code: <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.10/Lib/inspect.py">Lib/inspect.py</a>
<hr class="docutils" />
The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">inspect</code></a> module provides several useful functions to help get
information about live objects such as modules, classes, methods, functions,
tracebacks, frame objects, and code objects. For example, it can help you
examine the contents of a class, retrieve the source code of a method, extract
and format the argument list for a function, or get all the information you need
to display a detailed traceback.
There are four main kinds of services provided by this module: type checking,
getting source code, inspecting classes and functions, and examining the
interpreter stack.
<section id="types-and-members">
<h2>Types and members<a class="headerlink" href="#types-and-members" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
The <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getmembers" title="inspect.getmembers"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">getmembers()</code></a> function retrieves the members of an object such as a
class or module. The functions whose names begin with “is” are mainly
provided as convenient choices for the second argument to <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getmembers" title="inspect.getmembers"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">getmembers()</code></a>.
They also help you determine when you can expect to find the following special
attributes:
<table class="docutils align-default">
<colgroup>
<col style="width: 19%" />
<col style="width: 33%" />
<col style="width: 47%" />
</colgroup>
<thead>
<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head">Type</th>
<th class="head">Attribute</th>
<th class="head">Description</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="row-even"><td>module</td>
<td>__doc__</td>
<td>documentation string</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>__file__</td>
<td>filename (missing for
built-in modules)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td>class</td>
<td>__doc__</td>
<td>documentation string</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>__name__</td>
<td>name with which this
class was defined</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>__qualname__</td>
<td>qualified name</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>__module__</td>
<td>name of module in which
this class was defined</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td>method</td>
<td>__doc__</td>
<td>documentation string</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>__name__</td>
<td>name with which this
method was defined</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>__qualname__</td>
<td>qualified name</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>__func__</td>
<td>function object
containing implementation
of method</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>__self__</td>
<td>instance to which this
method is bound, or
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>__module__</td>
<td>name of module in which
this method was defined</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td>function</td>
<td>__doc__</td>
<td>documentation string</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>__name__</td>
<td>name with which this
function was defined</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>__qualname__</td>
<td>qualified name</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>__code__</td>
<td>code object containing
compiled function
<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytecode">bytecode</a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>__defaults__</td>
<td>tuple of any default
values for positional or
keyword parameters</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>__kwdefaults__</td>
<td>mapping of any default
values for keyword-only
parameters</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>__globals__</td>
<td>global namespace in which
this function was defined</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>__builtins__</td>
<td>builtins namespace</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>__annotations__</td>
<td>mapping of parameters
names to annotations;
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">&quot;return&quot;</code> key is
reserved for return
annotations.</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>__module__</td>
<td>name of module in which
this function was defined</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td>traceback</td>
<td>tb_frame</td>
<td>frame object at this
level</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>tb_lasti</td>
<td>index of last attempted
instruction in bytecode</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>tb_lineno</td>
<td>current line number in
Python source code</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>tb_next</td>
<td>next inner traceback
object (called by this
level)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td>frame</td>
<td>f_back</td>
<td>next outer frame object
(this frame’s caller)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>f_builtins</td>
<td>builtins namespace seen
by this frame</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>f_code</td>
<td>code object being
executed in this frame</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>f_globals</td>
<td>global namespace seen by
this frame</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>f_lasti</td>
<td>index of last attempted
instruction in bytecode</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>f_lineno</td>
<td>current line number in
Python source code</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>f_locals</td>
<td>local namespace seen by
this frame</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>f_trace</td>
<td>tracing function for this
frame, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td>code</td>
<td>co_argcount</td>
<td>number of arguments (not
including keyword only
arguments, * or **
args)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>co_code</td>
<td>string of raw compiled
bytecode</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>co_cellvars</td>
<td>tuple of names of cell
variables (referenced by
containing scopes)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>co_consts</td>
<td>tuple of constants used
in the bytecode</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>co_filename</td>
<td>name of file in which
this code object was
created</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>co_firstlineno</td>
<td>number of first line in
Python source code</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>co_flags</td>
<td>bitmap of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">CO_*</code> flags,
read more <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect-module-co-flags">here</a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>co_lnotab</td>
<td>encoded mapping of line
numbers to bytecode
indices</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>co_freevars</td>
<td>tuple of names of free
variables (referenced via
a function’s closure)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>co_posonlyargcount</td>
<td>number of positional only
arguments</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>co_kwonlyargcount</td>
<td>number of keyword only
arguments (not including
** arg)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>co_name</td>
<td>name with which this code
object was defined</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>co_names</td>
<td>tuple of names other
than arguments and
function locals</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>co_nlocals</td>
<td>number of local variables</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>co_stacksize</td>
<td>virtual machine stack
space required</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>co_varnames</td>
<td>tuple of names of
arguments and local
variables</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td>generator</td>
<td>__name__</td>
<td>name</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>__qualname__</td>
<td>qualified name</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>gi_frame</td>
<td>frame</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>gi_running</td>
<td>is the generator running?</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>gi_code</td>
<td>code</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>gi_yieldfrom</td>
<td>object being iterated by
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">yield from</code>, or
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td>coroutine</td>
<td>__name__</td>
<td>name</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>__qualname__</td>
<td>qualified name</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>cr_await</td>
<td>object being awaited on,
or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>cr_frame</td>
<td>frame</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>cr_running</td>
<td>is the coroutine running?</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>cr_code</td>
<td>code</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>cr_origin</td>
<td>where coroutine was
created, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>. See
<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth" title="sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth()</code></a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td>builtin</td>
<td>__doc__</td>
<td>documentation string</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>__name__</td>
<td>original name of this
function or method</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>__qualname__</td>
<td>qualified name</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>__self__</td>
<td>instance to which a
method is bound, or
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.5: Add <code class="docutils literal notranslate">__qualname__</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">gi_yieldfrom</code> attributes to generators.
The <code class="docutils literal notranslate">__name__</code> attribute of generators is now set from the function
name, instead of the code name, and it can now be modified.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.7: Add <code class="docutils literal notranslate">cr_origin</code> attribute to coroutines.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.10: Add <code class="docutils literal notranslate">__builtins__</code> attribute to functions.
</div>
<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getmembers">
inspect.getmembers(object[, predicate])<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getmembers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return all the members of an object in a list of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">(name, value)</code>
pairs sorted by name. If the optional predicate argument—which will be
called with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">value</code> object of each member—is supplied, only members
for which the predicate returns a true value are included.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getmembers" title="inspect.getmembers"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">getmembers()</code></a> will only return class attributes defined in the
metaclass when the argument is a class and those attributes have been
listed in the metaclass’ custom <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__dir__()</code>.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getmodulename">
inspect.getmodulename(path)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getmodulename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the name of the module named by the file path, without including the
names of enclosing packages. The file extension is checked against all of
the entries in <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.machinery.all_suffixes" title="importlib.machinery.all_suffixes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">importlib.machinery.all_suffixes()</code></a>. If it matches,
the final path component is returned with the extension removed.
Otherwise, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code> is returned.
Note that this function only returns a meaningful name for actual
Python modules - paths that potentially refer to Python packages will
still return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.3: The function is based directly on <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#module-importlib" title="importlib: The implementation of the import machinery."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">importlib</code></a>.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.ismodule">
inspect.ismodule(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.ismodule" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the object is a module.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.isclass">
inspect.isclass(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isclass" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the object is a class, whether built-in or created in Python
code.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.ismethod">
inspect.ismethod(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.ismethod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the object is a bound method written in Python.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.isfunction">
inspect.isfunction(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isfunction" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the object is a Python function, which includes functions
created by a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-lambda">lambda</a> expression.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.isgeneratorfunction">
inspect.isgeneratorfunction(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isgeneratorfunction" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the object is a Python generator function.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.8: Functions wrapped in <a class="reference internal" href="functools.html#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">functools.partial()</code></a> now return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the
wrapped function is a Python generator function.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.isgenerator">
inspect.isgenerator(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isgenerator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the object is a generator.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.iscoroutinefunction">
inspect.iscoroutinefunction(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.iscoroutinefunction" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the object is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-coroutine-function">coroutine function</a>
(a function defined with an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#async-def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">async def</code></a> syntax).
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.5.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.8: Functions wrapped in <a class="reference internal" href="functools.html#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">functools.partial()</code></a> now return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the
wrapped function is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-coroutine-function">coroutine function</a>.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.iscoroutine">
inspect.iscoroutine(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.iscoroutine" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the object is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-coroutine">coroutine</a> created by an
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#async-def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">async def</code></a> function.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.5.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.isawaitable">
inspect.isawaitable(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isawaitable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the object can be used in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#await"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">await</code></a> expression.
Can also be used to distinguish generator-based coroutines from regular
generators:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>def gen():
 yield
@types.coroutine
def gen_coro():
 yield

assert not isawaitable(gen())
assert isawaitable(gen_coro())
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.5.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.isasyncgenfunction">
inspect.isasyncgenfunction(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isasyncgenfunction" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the object is an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-generator">asynchronous generator</a> function,
for example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; async def agen():
... yield 1
...
&gt;&gt;&gt; inspect.isasyncgenfunction(agen)
True
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.6.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.8: Functions wrapped in <a class="reference internal" href="functools.html#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">functools.partial()</code></a> now return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the
wrapped function is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-generator">asynchronous generator</a> function.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.isasyncgen">
inspect.isasyncgen(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isasyncgen" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the object is an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-generator-iterator">asynchronous generator iterator</a>
created by an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-asynchronous-generator">asynchronous generator</a> function.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.6.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.istraceback">
inspect.istraceback(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.istraceback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the object is a traceback.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.isframe">
inspect.isframe(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isframe" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the object is a frame.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.iscode">
inspect.iscode(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.iscode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the object is a code.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.isbuiltin">
inspect.isbuiltin(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isbuiltin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the object is a built-in function or a bound built-in method.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.isroutine">
inspect.isroutine(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isroutine" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the object is a user-defined or built-in function or method.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.isabstract">
inspect.isabstract(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isabstract" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the object is an abstract base class.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.ismethoddescriptor">
inspect.ismethoddescriptor(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.ismethoddescriptor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the object is a method descriptor, but not if
<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.ismethod" title="inspect.ismethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">ismethod()</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.isclass" title="inspect.isclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">isclass()</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.isfunction" title="inspect.isfunction"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">isfunction()</code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.isbuiltin" title="inspect.isbuiltin"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">isbuiltin()</code></a>
are true.
This, for example, is true of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">int.__add__</code>. An object passing this test
has a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__get__" title="object.__get__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__get__()</code></a> method but not a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__set__" title="object.__set__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__set__()</code></a>
method, but beyond that the set of attributes varies. A
<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#definition.__name__" title="definition.__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__name__</code></a> attribute is usually
sensible, and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__doc__</code> often is.
Methods implemented via descriptors that also pass one of the other tests
return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> from the <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.ismethoddescriptor" title="inspect.ismethoddescriptor"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">ismethoddescriptor()</code></a> test, simply because the
other tests promise more – you can, e.g., count on having the
<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__func__</code> attribute (etc) when an object passes <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.ismethod" title="inspect.ismethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">ismethod()</code></a>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.isdatadescriptor">
inspect.isdatadescriptor(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isdatadescriptor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the object is a data descriptor.
Data descriptors have a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__set__" title="object.__set__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__set__</code></a> or a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__delete__" title="object.__delete__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__delete__</code></a> method.
Examples are properties (defined in Python), getsets, and members. The
latter two are defined in C and there are more specific tests available for
those types, which is robust across Python implementations. Typically, data
descriptors will also have <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#definition.__name__" title="definition.__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__name__</code></a> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__doc__</code> attributes
(properties, getsets, and members have both of these attributes), but this is
not guaranteed.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.isgetsetdescriptor">
inspect.isgetsetdescriptor(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isgetsetdescriptor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the object is a getset descriptor.
<div class="impl-detail compound">
CPython implementation detail: getsets are attributes defined in extension modules via
<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyGetSetDef" title="PyGetSetDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate">PyGetSetDef</code></a> structures. For Python implementations without such
types, this method will always return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code>.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.ismemberdescriptor">
inspect.ismemberdescriptor(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.ismemberdescriptor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the object is a member descriptor.
<div class="impl-detail compound">
CPython implementation detail: Member descriptors are attributes defined in extension modules via
<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyMemberDef" title="PyMemberDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate">PyMemberDef</code></a> structures. For Python implementations without such
types, this method will always return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code>.
</div>
</dd></dl>

</section>
<section id="retrieving-source-code">
<h2>Retrieving source code<a class="headerlink" href="#retrieving-source-code" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getdoc">
inspect.getdoc(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getdoc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Get the documentation string for an object, cleaned up with <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.cleandoc" title="inspect.cleandoc"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">cleandoc()</code></a>.
If the documentation string for an object is not provided and the object is
a class, a method, a property or a descriptor, retrieve the documentation
string from the inheritance hierarchy.
Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code> if the documentation string is invalid or missing.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.5: Documentation strings are now inherited if not overridden.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getcomments">
inspect.getcomments(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getcomments" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return in a single string any lines of comments immediately preceding the
object’s source code (for a class, function, or method), or at the top of the
Python source file (if the object is a module). If the object’s source code
is unavailable, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>. This could happen if the object has been
defined in C or the interactive shell.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getfile">
inspect.getfile(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the name of the (text or binary) file in which an object was defined.
This will fail with a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">TypeError</code></a> if the object is a built-in module,
class, or function.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getmodule">
inspect.getmodule(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getmodule" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Try to guess which module an object was defined in. Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>
if the module cannot be determined.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getsourcefile">
inspect.getsourcefile(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getsourcefile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the name of the Python source file in which an object was defined
or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code> if no way can be identified to get the source. This
will fail with a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">TypeError</code></a> if the object is a built-in module, class, or
function.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getsourcelines">
inspect.getsourcelines(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getsourcelines" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a list of source lines and starting line number for an object. The
argument may be a module, class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code
object. The source code is returned as a list of the lines corresponding to the
object and the line number indicates where in the original source file the first
line of code was found. An <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">OSError</code></a> is raised if the source code cannot
be retrieved.
A <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">TypeError</code></a> is raised if the object is a built-in module, class, or
function.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.3: <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">OSError</code></a> is raised instead of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IOError" title="IOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">IOError</code></a>, now an alias of the
former.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getsource">
inspect.getsource(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getsource" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the text of the source code for an object. The argument may be a module,
class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code object. The source code is
returned as a single string. An <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">OSError</code></a> is raised if the source code
cannot be retrieved.
A <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">TypeError</code></a> is raised if the object is a built-in module, class, or
function.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.3: <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OSError" title="OSError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">OSError</code></a> is raised instead of <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IOError" title="IOError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">IOError</code></a>, now an alias of the
former.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.cleandoc">
inspect.cleandoc(doc)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.cleandoc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Clean up indentation from docstrings that are indented to line up with blocks
of code.
All leading whitespace is removed from the first line. Any leading whitespace
that can be uniformly removed from the second line onwards is removed. Empty
lines at the beginning and end are subsequently removed. Also, all tabs are
expanded to spaces.
</dd></dl>

</section>
<section id="introspecting-callables-with-the-signature-object">
<h2>Introspecting callables with the Signature object<a class="headerlink" href="#introspecting-callables-with-the-signature-object" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.3.
</div>
The Signature object represents the call signature of a callable object and its
return annotation. To retrieve a Signature object, use the <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">signature()</code></a>
function.
<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.signature">
inspect.signature(callable, *, follow_wrapped=True, globals=None, locals=None, eval_str=False)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.signature" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature" title="inspect.Signature"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">Signature</code></a> object for the given <code class="docutils literal notranslate">callable</code>:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; from inspect import signature
&gt;&gt;&gt; def foo(a, *, b:int, **kwargs):
... pass

&gt;&gt;&gt; sig = signature(foo)

&gt;&gt;&gt; str(sig)
&#39;(a, *, b:int, **kwargs)&#39;

&gt;&gt;&gt; str(sig.parameters[&#39;b&#39;])
&#39;b:int&#39;

&gt;&gt;&gt; sig.parameters[&#39;b&#39;].annotation
&lt;class &#39;int&#39;&gt;
</pre></div>
</div>
Accepts a wide range of Python callables, from plain functions and classes to
<a class="reference internal" href="functools.html#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">functools.partial()</code></a> objects.
For objects defined in modules using stringized annotations
(<code class="docutils literal notranslate">from __future__ import annotations</code>), <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">signature()</code></a> will
attempt to automatically un-stringize the annotations using
<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.get_annotations" title="inspect.get_annotations"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">inspect.get_annotations()</code></a>. The
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">global</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">locals</code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">eval_str</code> parameters are passed
into <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.get_annotations" title="inspect.get_annotations"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">inspect.get_annotations()</code></a> when resolving the
annotations; see the documentation for <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.get_annotations" title="inspect.get_annotations"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">inspect.get_annotations()</code></a>
for instructions on how to use these parameters.
Raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">ValueError</code></a> if no signature can be provided, and
<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">TypeError</code></a> if that type of object is not supported. Also,
if the annotations are stringized, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">eval_str</code> is not false,
the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">eval()</code> call(s) to un-stringize the annotations could
potentially raise any kind of exception.
A slash(/) in the signature of a function denotes that the parameters prior
to it are positional-only. For more info, see
<a class="reference internal" href="../faq/programming.html#faq-positional-only-arguments">the FAQ entry on positional-only parameters</a>.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.5: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">follow_wrapped</code> parameter. Pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> to get a signature of
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">callable</code> specifically (<code class="docutils literal notranslate">callable.__wrapped__</code> will not be used to
unwrap decorated callables.)
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.10: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">globals</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">locals</code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">eval_str</code> parameters.
</div>
<div class="admonition note">
Note
Some callables may not be introspectable in certain implementations of
Python. For example, in CPython, some built-in functions defined in
C provide no metadata about their arguments.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py class">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.Signature">
class inspect.Signature(parameters=None, *, return_annotation=Signature.empty)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Signature" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>A Signature object represents the call signature of a function and its return
annotation. For each parameter accepted by the function it stores a
<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Parameter" title="inspect.Parameter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">Parameter</code></a> object in its <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature.parameters" title="inspect.Signature.parameters"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">parameters</code></a> collection.
The optional parameters argument is a sequence of <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Parameter" title="inspect.Parameter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">Parameter</code></a>
objects, which is validated to check that there are no parameters with
duplicate names, and that the parameters are in the right order, i.e.
positional-only first, then positional-or-keyword, and that parameters with
defaults follow parameters without defaults.
The optional return_annotation argument, can be an arbitrary Python object,
is the “return” annotation of the callable.
Signature objects are immutable. Use <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature.replace" title="inspect.Signature.replace"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">Signature.replace()</code></a> to make a
modified copy.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.5: Signature objects are picklable and <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable">hashable</a>.
</div>
<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.Signature.empty">
empty<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Signature.empty" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>A special class-level marker to specify absence of a return annotation.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.Signature.parameters">
parameters<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Signature.parameters" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>An ordered mapping of parameters’ names to the corresponding
<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Parameter" title="inspect.Parameter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">Parameter</code></a> objects. Parameters appear in strict definition
order, including keyword-only parameters.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.7: Python only explicitly guaranteed that it preserved the declaration
order of keyword-only parameters as of version 3.7, although in practice
this order had always been preserved in Python 3.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.Signature.return_annotation">
return_annotation<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Signature.return_annotation" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The “return” annotation for the callable. If the callable has no “return”
annotation, this attribute is set to <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature.empty" title="inspect.Signature.empty"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">Signature.empty</code></a>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.Signature.bind">
bind(*args, **kwargs)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Signature.bind" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Create a mapping from positional and keyword arguments to parameters.
Returns <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.BoundArguments" title="inspect.BoundArguments"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">BoundArguments</code></a> if <code class="docutils literal notranslate">*args</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">**kwargs</code> match the
signature, or raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">TypeError</code></a>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.Signature.bind_partial">
bind_partial(*args, **kwargs)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Signature.bind_partial" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Works the same way as <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature.bind" title="inspect.Signature.bind"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">Signature.bind()</code></a>, but allows the omission of
some required arguments (mimics <a class="reference internal" href="functools.html#functools.partial" title="functools.partial"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">functools.partial()</code></a> behavior.)
Returns <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.BoundArguments" title="inspect.BoundArguments"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">BoundArguments</code></a>, or raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">TypeError</code></a> if the
passed arguments do not match the signature.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.Signature.replace">
replace(*[, parameters][, return_annotation])<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Signature.replace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Create a new Signature instance based on the instance replace was invoked
on. It is possible to pass different <code class="docutils literal notranslate">parameters</code> and/or
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">return_annotation</code> to override the corresponding properties of the base
signature. To remove return_annotation from the copied Signature, pass in
<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature.empty" title="inspect.Signature.empty"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">Signature.empty</code></a>.
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; def test(a, b):
... pass
&gt;&gt;&gt; sig = signature(test)
&gt;&gt;&gt; new_sig = sig.replace(return_annotation=&quot;new return anno&quot;)
&gt;&gt;&gt; str(new_sig)
&quot;(a, b) -&gt; &#39;new return anno&#39;&quot;
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.Signature.from_callable">
classmethod from_callable(obj, *, follow_wrapped=True, globalns=None, localns=None)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Signature.from_callable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature" title="inspect.Signature"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">Signature</code></a> (or its subclass) object for a given callable
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">obj</code>. Pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate">follow_wrapped=False</code> to get a signature of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">obj</code>
without unwrapping its <code class="docutils literal notranslate">__wrapped__</code> chain. <code class="docutils literal notranslate">globalns</code> and
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">localns</code> will be used as the namespaces when resolving annotations.
This method simplifies subclassing of <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature" title="inspect.Signature"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">Signature</code></a>:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>class MySignature(Signature):
 pass
sig = MySignature.from_callable(min)
assert isinstance(sig, MySignature)
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.5.
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.10: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">globalns</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">localns</code> parameters.
</div>
</dd></dl>

</dd></dl>

<dl class="py class">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.Parameter">
class inspect.Parameter(name, kind, *, default=Parameter.empty, annotation=Parameter.empty)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Parameter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Parameter objects are immutable. Instead of modifying a Parameter object,
you can use <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Parameter.replace" title="inspect.Parameter.replace"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">Parameter.replace()</code></a> to create a modified copy.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.5: Parameter objects are picklable and <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable">hashable</a>.
</div>
<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.Parameter.empty">
empty<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Parameter.empty" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>A special class-level marker to specify absence of default values and
annotations.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.Parameter.name">
name<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Parameter.name" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The name of the parameter as a string. The name must be a valid
Python identifier.
<div class="impl-detail compound">
CPython implementation detail: CPython generates implicit parameter names of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate">.0</code> on the
code objects used to implement comprehensions and generator
expressions.
<div class="compound-last versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.6: These parameter names are exposed by this module as names like
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">implicit0</code>.
</div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.Parameter.default">
default<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Parameter.default" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The default value for the parameter. If the parameter has no default
value, this attribute is set to <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Parameter.empty" title="inspect.Parameter.empty"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">Parameter.empty</code></a>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.Parameter.annotation">
annotation<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Parameter.annotation" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The annotation for the parameter. If the parameter has no annotation,
this attribute is set to <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Parameter.empty" title="inspect.Parameter.empty"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">Parameter.empty</code></a>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.Parameter.kind">
kind<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Parameter.kind" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Describes how argument values are bound to the parameter. The possible
values are accessible via <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Parameter" title="inspect.Parameter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">Parameter</code></a> (like <code class="docutils literal notranslate">Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY</code>),
and support comparison and ordering, in the following order:
<table class="docutils align-default">
<colgroup>
<col style="width: 34%" />
<col style="width: 66%" />
</colgroup>
<thead>
<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head">Name</th>
<th class="head">Meaning</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="row-even"><td>POSITIONAL_ONLY</td>
<td>Value must be supplied as a positional
argument. Positional only parameters are
those which appear before a <code class="docutils literal notranslate">/</code> entry (if
present) in a Python function definition.</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td>POSITIONAL_OR_KEYWORD</td>
<td>Value may be supplied as either a keyword or
positional argument (this is the standard
binding behaviour for functions implemented
in Python.)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td>VAR_POSITIONAL</td>
<td>A tuple of positional arguments that aren’t
bound to any other parameter. This
corresponds to a <code class="docutils literal notranslate">*args</code> parameter in a
Python function definition.</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td>KEYWORD_ONLY</td>
<td>Value must be supplied as a keyword argument.
Keyword only parameters are those which
appear after a <code class="docutils literal notranslate">*</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">*args</code> entry in a
Python function definition.</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td>VAR_KEYWORD</td>
<td>A dict of keyword arguments that aren’t bound
to any other parameter. This corresponds to a
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">**kwargs</code> parameter in a Python function
definition.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
Example: print all keyword-only arguments without default values:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10):
... pass

&gt;&gt;&gt; sig = signature(foo)
&gt;&gt;&gt; for param in sig.parameters.values():
... if (param.kind == param.KEYWORD_ONLY and
... param.default is param.empty):
... print(&#39;Parameter:&#39;, param)
Parameter: c
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.Parameter.kind.description">
kind.description<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Parameter.kind.description" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Describes a enum value of Parameter.kind.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.8.
</div>
Example: print all descriptions of arguments:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10):
... pass

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.Parameter.replace">
replace(*[, name][, kind][, default][, annotation])<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.Parameter.replace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Create a new Parameter instance based on the instance replaced was invoked
on. To override a <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Parameter" title="inspect.Parameter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">Parameter</code></a> attribute, pass the corresponding
argument. To remove a default value or/and an annotation from a
Parameter, pass <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Parameter.empty" title="inspect.Parameter.empty"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">Parameter.empty</code></a>.
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; from inspect import Parameter
&gt;&gt;&gt; param = Parameter(&#39;foo&#39;, Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY, default=42)
&gt;&gt;&gt; str(param)
&#39;foo=42&#39;

&gt;&gt;&gt; str(param.replace()) # Will create a shallow copy of &#39;param&#39;
&#39;foo=42&#39;

&gt;&gt;&gt; str(param.replace(default=Parameter.empty, annotation=&#39;spam&#39;))
&quot;foo:&#39;spam&#39;&quot;
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.4: In Python 3.3 Parameter objects were allowed to have <code class="docutils literal notranslate">name</code> set
to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code> if their <code class="docutils literal notranslate">kind</code> was set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">POSITIONAL_ONLY</code>.
This is no longer permitted.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py class">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.BoundArguments">
class inspect.BoundArguments<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.BoundArguments" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Result of a <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature.bind" title="inspect.Signature.bind"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">Signature.bind()</code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature.bind_partial" title="inspect.Signature.bind_partial"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">Signature.bind_partial()</code></a> call.
Holds the mapping of arguments to the function’s parameters.
<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.BoundArguments.arguments">
arguments<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.arguments" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>A mutable mapping of parameters’ names to arguments’ values.
Contains only explicitly bound arguments. Changes in <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.arguments" title="inspect.BoundArguments.arguments"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">arguments</code></a>
will reflect in <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.args" title="inspect.BoundArguments.args"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">args</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.kwargs" title="inspect.BoundArguments.kwargs"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">kwargs</code></a>.
Should be used in conjunction with <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature.parameters" title="inspect.Signature.parameters"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">Signature.parameters</code></a> for any
argument processing purposes.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
Arguments for which <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature.bind" title="inspect.Signature.bind"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">Signature.bind()</code></a> or
<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature.bind_partial" title="inspect.Signature.bind_partial"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">Signature.bind_partial()</code></a> relied on a default value are skipped.
However, if needed, use <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.apply_defaults" title="inspect.BoundArguments.apply_defaults"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">BoundArguments.apply_defaults()</code></a> to add
them.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.9: <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.arguments" title="inspect.BoundArguments.arguments"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">arguments</code></a> is now of type <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">dict</code></a>. Formerly, it was of
type <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.OrderedDict</code></a>.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.BoundArguments.args">
args<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.args" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>A tuple of positional arguments values. Dynamically computed from the
<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.arguments" title="inspect.BoundArguments.arguments"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">arguments</code></a> attribute.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.BoundArguments.kwargs">
kwargs<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.kwargs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>A dict of keyword arguments values. Dynamically computed from the
<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.arguments" title="inspect.BoundArguments.arguments"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">arguments</code></a> attribute.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.BoundArguments.signature">
signature<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.signature" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>A reference to the parent <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature" title="inspect.Signature"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">Signature</code></a> object.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.BoundArguments.apply_defaults">
apply_defaults()<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.apply_defaults" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Set default values for missing arguments.
For variable-positional arguments (<code class="docutils literal notranslate">*args</code>) the default is an
empty tuple.
For variable-keyword arguments (<code class="docutils literal notranslate">**kwargs</code>) the default is an
empty dict.
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; def foo(a, b=&#39;ham&#39;, *args): pass
&gt;&gt;&gt; ba = inspect.signature(foo).bind(&#39;spam&#39;)
&gt;&gt;&gt; ba.apply_defaults()
&gt;&gt;&gt; ba.arguments
{&#39;a&#39;: &#39;spam&#39;, &#39;b&#39;: &#39;ham&#39;, &#39;args&#39;: ()}
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.5.
</div>
</dd></dl>

The <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.args" title="inspect.BoundArguments.args"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">args</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.BoundArguments.kwargs" title="inspect.BoundArguments.kwargs"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">kwargs</code></a> properties can be used to invoke
functions:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>def test(a, *, b):
 ...

sig = signature(test)
ba = sig.bind(10, b=20)
test(*ba.args, **ba.kwargs)
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<div class="admonition seealso">
See also
<dl class="simple">
<dt><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0362">PEP 362</a> - Function Signature Object.</dt><dd>The detailed specification, implementation details and examples.
</dd>
</dl>
</div>
</section>
<section id="classes-and-functions">
<h2>Classes and functions<a class="headerlink" href="#classes-and-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getclasstree">
inspect.getclasstree(classes, unique=False)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getclasstree" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Arrange the given list of classes into a hierarchy of nested lists. Where a
nested list appears, it contains classes derived from the class whose entry
immediately precedes the list. Each entry is a 2-tuple containing a class and a
tuple of its base classes. If the unique argument is true, exactly one entry
appears in the returned structure for each class in the given list. Otherwise,
classes using multiple inheritance and their descendants will appear multiple
times.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getargspec">
inspect.getargspec(func)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getargspec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Get the names and default values of a Python function’s parameters. A
<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple">named tuple</a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate">ArgSpec(args, varargs, keywords, defaults)</code> is
returned. args is a list of the parameter names. varargs and keywords
are the names of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">*</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">**</code> parameters or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>. defaults is a
tuple of default argument values or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code> if there are no default
arguments; if this tuple has n elements, they correspond to the last
n elements listed in args.
<div class="deprecated">
Deprecated since version 3.0: Use <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getfullargspec" title="inspect.getfullargspec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">getfullargspec()</code></a> for an updated API that is usually a drop-in
replacement, but also correctly handles function annotations and
keyword-only parameters.
Alternatively, use <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">signature()</code></a> and
<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect-signature-object">Signature Object</a>, which provide a
more structured introspection API for callables.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getfullargspec">
inspect.getfullargspec(func)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getfullargspec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Get the names and default values of a Python function’s parameters. A
<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple">named tuple</a> is returned:
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">FullArgSpec(args, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs, kwonlydefaults,
annotations)</code>
args is a list of the positional parameter names.
varargs is the name of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">*</code> parameter or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code> if arbitrary
positional arguments are not accepted.
varkw is the name of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">**</code> parameter or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code> if arbitrary
keyword arguments are not accepted.
defaults is an n-tuple of default argument values corresponding to the
last n positional parameters, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code> if there are no such defaults
defined.
kwonlyargs is a list of keyword-only parameter names in declaration order.
kwonlydefaults is a dictionary mapping parameter names from kwonlyargs
to the default values used if no argument is supplied.
annotations is a dictionary mapping parameter names to annotations.
The special key <code class="docutils literal notranslate">&quot;return&quot;</code> is used to report the function return value
annotation (if any).
Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">signature()</code></a> and
<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect-signature-object">Signature Object</a> provide the recommended
API for callable introspection, and support additional behaviours (like
positional-only arguments) that are sometimes encountered in extension module
APIs. This function is retained primarily for use in code that needs to
maintain compatibility with the Python 2 <code class="docutils literal notranslate">inspect</code> module API.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.4: This function is now based on <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">signature()</code></a>, but still ignores
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">__wrapped__</code> attributes and includes the already bound first
parameter in the signature output for bound methods.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.6: This method was previously documented as deprecated in favour of
<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">signature()</code></a> in Python 3.5, but that decision has been reversed
in order to restore a clearly supported standard interface for
single-source Python 2/3 code migrating away from the legacy
<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getargspec" title="inspect.getargspec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">getargspec()</code></a> API.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.7: Python only explicitly guaranteed that it preserved the declaration
order of keyword-only parameters as of version 3.7, although in practice
this order had always been preserved in Python 3.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getargvalues">
inspect.getargvalues(frame)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getargvalues" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Get information about arguments passed into a particular frame. A
<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple">named tuple</a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate">ArgInfo(args, varargs, keywords, locals)</code> is
returned. args is a list of the argument names. varargs and keywords
are the names of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">*</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">**</code> arguments or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>. locals is the
locals dictionary of the given frame.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
This function was inadvertently marked as deprecated in Python 3.5.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.formatargspec">
inspect.formatargspec(args[, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs, kwonlydefaults, annotations[, formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue, formatreturns, formatannotations]])<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.formatargspec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Format a pretty argument spec from the values returned by
<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getfullargspec" title="inspect.getfullargspec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">getfullargspec()</code></a>.
The first seven arguments are (<code class="docutils literal notranslate">args</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">varargs</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">varkw</code>,
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">defaults</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">kwonlyargs</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">kwonlydefaults</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">annotations</code>).
The other six arguments are functions that are called to turn argument names,
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">*</code> argument name, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">**</code> argument name, default values, return annotation
and individual annotations into strings, respectively.
For example:
<div class="doctest highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; from inspect import formatargspec, getfullargspec
&gt;&gt;&gt; def f(a: int, b: float):
... pass
...
&gt;&gt;&gt; formatargspec(*getfullargspec(f))
&#39;(a: int, b: float)&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="deprecated">
Deprecated since version 3.5: Use <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">signature()</code></a> and
<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect-signature-object">Signature Object</a>, which provide a
better introspecting API for callables.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.formatargvalues">
inspect.formatargvalues(args[, varargs, varkw, locals, formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue])<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.formatargvalues" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Format a pretty argument spec from the four values returned by
<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getargvalues" title="inspect.getargvalues"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">getargvalues()</code></a>. The format* arguments are the corresponding optional
formatting functions that are called to turn names and values into strings.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
This function was inadvertently marked as deprecated in Python 3.5.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getmro">
inspect.getmro(cls)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getmro" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a tuple of class cls’s base classes, including cls, in method resolution
order. No class appears more than once in this tuple. Note that the method
resolution order depends on cls’s type. Unless a very peculiar user-defined
metatype is in use, cls will be the first element of the tuple.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getcallargs">
inspect.getcallargs(func, /, *args, **kwds)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getcallargs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Bind the args and kwds to the argument names of the Python function or
method func, as if it was called with them. For bound methods, bind also the
first argument (typically named <code class="docutils literal notranslate">self</code>) to the associated instance. A dict
is returned, mapping the argument names (including the names of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">*</code> and
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">**</code> arguments, if any) to their values from args and kwds. In case of
invoking func incorrectly, i.e. whenever <code class="docutils literal notranslate">func(*args, **kwds)</code> would raise
an exception because of incompatible signature, an exception of the same type
and the same or similar message is raised. For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; from inspect import getcallargs
&gt;&gt;&gt; def f(a, b=1, *pos, **named):
... pass
&gt;&gt;&gt; getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3) == {&#39;a&#39;: 1, &#39;named&#39;: {}, &#39;b&#39;: 2, &#39;pos&#39;: (3,)}
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4) == {&#39;a&#39;: 2, &#39;named&#39;: {&#39;x&#39;: 4}, &#39;b&#39;: 1, &#39;pos&#39;: ()}
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; getcallargs(f)
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
TypeError: f() missing 1 required positional argument: &#39;a&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.2.
</div>
<div class="deprecated">
Deprecated since version 3.5: Use <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature.bind" title="inspect.Signature.bind"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">Signature.bind()</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.Signature.bind_partial" title="inspect.Signature.bind_partial"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">Signature.bind_partial()</code></a> instead.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getclosurevars">
inspect.getclosurevars(func)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getclosurevars" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Get the mapping of external name references in a Python function or
method func to their current values. A
<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple">named tuple</a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate">ClosureVars(nonlocals, globals, builtins, unbound)</code>
is returned. nonlocals maps referenced names to lexical closure
variables, globals to the function’s module globals and builtins to
the builtins visible from the function body. unbound is the set of names
referenced in the function that could not be resolved at all given the
current module globals and builtins.
<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">TypeError</code></a> is raised if func is not a Python function or method.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.3.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.unwrap">
inspect.unwrap(func, *, stop=None)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.unwrap" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Get the object wrapped by func. It follows the chain of <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__wrapped__</code>
attributes returning the last object in the chain.
stop is an optional callback accepting an object in the wrapper chain
as its sole argument that allows the unwrapping to be terminated early if
the callback returns a true value. If the callback never returns a true
value, the last object in the chain is returned as usual. For example,
<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.signature" title="inspect.signature"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">signature()</code></a> uses this to stop unwrapping if any object in the
chain has a <code class="docutils literal notranslate">__signature__</code> attribute defined.
<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">ValueError</code></a> is raised if a cycle is encountered.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.4.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.get_annotations">
inspect.get_annotations(obj, *, globals=None, locals=None, eval_str=False)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.get_annotations" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Compute the annotations dict for an object.
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">obj</code> may be a callable, class, or module.
Passing in an object of any other type raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">TypeError</code></a>.
Returns a dict. <code class="docutils literal notranslate">get_annotations()</code> returns a new dict every time
it’s called; calling it twice on the same object will return two
different but equivalent dicts.
This function handles several details for you:
<ul class="simple">
<li>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate">eval_str</code> is true, values of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate">str</code> will
be un-stringized using <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">eval()</code></a>. This is intended
for use with stringized annotations
(<code class="docutils literal notranslate">from __future__ import annotations</code>).</li>
<li>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate">obj</code> doesn’t have an annotations dict, returns an
empty dict. (Functions and methods always have an
annotations dict; classes, modules, and other types of
callables may not.)</li>
<li>Ignores inherited annotations on classes. If a class
doesn’t have its own annotations dict, returns an empty dict.</li>
<li>All accesses to object members and dict values are done
using <code class="docutils literal notranslate">getattr()</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">dict.get()</code> for safety.</li>
<li>Always, always, always returns a freshly created dict.</li>
</ul>
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">eval_str</code> controls whether or not values of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate">str</code> are replaced
with the result of calling <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">eval()</code></a> on those values:
<ul class="simple">
<li>If eval_str is true, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">eval()</code></a> is called on values of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate">str</code>.
(Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate">get_annotations</code> doesn’t catch exceptions; if <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">eval()</code></a>
raises an exception, it will unwind the stack past the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">get_annotations</code>
call.)</li>
<li>If eval_str is false (the default), values of type <code class="docutils literal notranslate">str</code> are unchanged.</li>
</ul>
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">globals</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">locals</code> are passed in to <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">eval()</code></a>; see the documentation
for <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">eval()</code></a> for more information. If <code class="docutils literal notranslate">globals</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">locals</code>
is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>, this function may replace that value with a context-specific
default, contingent on <code class="docutils literal notranslate">type(obj)</code>:
<ul class="simple">
<li>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate">obj</code> is a module, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">globals</code> defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">obj.__dict__</code>.</li>
<li>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate">obj</code> is a class, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">globals</code> defaults to
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">sys.modules[obj.__module__].__dict__</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">locals</code> defaults
to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">obj</code> class namespace.</li>
<li>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate">obj</code> is a callable, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">globals</code> defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">obj.__globals__</code>,
although if <code class="docutils literal notranslate">obj</code> is a wrapped function (using
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">functools.update_wrapper()</code>) it is first unwrapped.</li>
</ul>
Calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate">get_annotations</code> is best practice for accessing the
annotations dict of any object. See <a class="reference internal" href="../howto/annotations.html#annotations-howto">Annotations Best Practices</a> for
more information on annotations best practices.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.10.
</div>
</dd></dl>

</section>
<section id="the-interpreter-stack">
<h2>The interpreter stack<a class="headerlink" href="#the-interpreter-stack" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
When the following functions return “frame records,” each record is a
<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple">named tuple</a>
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)</code>.
The tuple contains the frame object, the filename, the line number of the
current line,
the function name, a list of lines of context from the source code, and the
index of the current line within that list.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.5: Return a named tuple instead of a tuple.
</div>
<div class="admonition note">
Note
Keeping references to frame objects, as found in the first element of the frame
records these functions return, can cause your program to create reference
cycles. Once a reference cycle has been created, the lifespan of all objects
which can be accessed from the objects which form the cycle can become much
longer even if Python’s optional cycle detector is enabled. If such cycles must
be created, it is important to ensure they are explicitly broken to avoid the
delayed destruction of objects and increased memory consumption which occurs.
Though the cycle detector will catch these, destruction of the frames (and local
variables) can be made deterministic by removing the cycle in a
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">finally</code></a> clause. This is also important if the cycle detector was
disabled when Python was compiled or using <a class="reference internal" href="gc.html#gc.disable" title="gc.disable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">gc.disable()</code></a>. For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>def handle_stackframe_without_leak():
 frame = inspect.currentframe()
 try:
 # do something with the frame
 finally:
 del frame
</pre></div>
</div>
If you want to keep the frame around (for example to print a traceback
later), you can also break reference cycles by using the
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#frame.clear" title="frame.clear"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">frame.clear()</code></a> method.
</div>
The optional context argument supported by most of these functions specifies
the number of lines of context to return, which are centered around the current
line.
<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getframeinfo">
inspect.getframeinfo(frame, context=1)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getframeinfo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Get information about a frame or traceback object. A <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple">named tuple</a>
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">Traceback(filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)</code> is returned.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getouterframes">
inspect.getouterframes(frame, context=1)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getouterframes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Get a list of frame records for a frame and all outer frames. These frames
represent the calls that lead to the creation of frame. The first entry in the
returned list represents frame; the last entry represents the outermost call
on frame’s stack.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.5: A list of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple">named tuples</a>
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)</code>
is returned.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getinnerframes">
inspect.getinnerframes(traceback, context=1)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getinnerframes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Get a list of frame records for a traceback’s frame and all inner frames. These
frames represent calls made as a consequence of frame. The first entry in the
list represents traceback; the last entry represents where the exception was
raised.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.5: A list of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple">named tuples</a>
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)</code>
is returned.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.currentframe">
inspect.currentframe()<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.currentframe" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the frame object for the caller’s stack frame.
<div class="impl-detail compound">
CPython implementation detail: This function relies on Python stack frame support in the interpreter,
which isn’t guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python. If
running in an implementation without Python stack frame support this
function returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.stack">
inspect.stack(context=1)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.stack" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a list of frame records for the caller’s stack. The first entry in the
returned list represents the caller; the last entry represents the outermost
call on the stack.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.5: A list of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple">named tuples</a>
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)</code>
is returned.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.trace">
inspect.trace(context=1)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.trace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a list of frame records for the stack between the current frame and the
frame in which an exception currently being handled was raised in. The first
entry in the list represents the caller; the last entry represents where the
exception was raised.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.5: A list of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple">named tuples</a>
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)</code>
is returned.
</div>
</dd></dl>

</section>
<section id="fetching-attributes-statically">
<h2>Fetching attributes statically<a class="headerlink" href="#fetching-attributes-statically" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
Both <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#getattr" title="getattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">getattr()</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#hasattr" title="hasattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">hasattr()</code></a> can trigger code execution when
fetching or checking for the existence of attributes. Descriptors, like
properties, will be invoked and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__getattr__()</code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__getattribute__()</code>
may be called.
For cases where you want passive introspection, like documentation tools, this
can be inconvenient. <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getattr_static" title="inspect.getattr_static"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">getattr_static()</code></a> has the same signature as <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#getattr" title="getattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">getattr()</code></a>
but avoids executing code when it fetches attributes.
<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getattr_static">
inspect.getattr_static(obj, attr, default=None)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getattr_static" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Retrieve attributes without triggering dynamic lookup via the
descriptor protocol, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__getattr__()</code> or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__getattribute__()</code>.
Note: this function may not be able to retrieve all attributes
that getattr can fetch (like dynamically created attributes)
and may find attributes that getattr can’t (like descriptors
that raise AttributeError). It can also return descriptors objects
instead of instance members.
If the instance <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__dict__</code></a> is shadowed by another member (for
example a property) then this function will be unable to find instance
members.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.2.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getattr_static" title="inspect.getattr_static"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">getattr_static()</code></a> does not resolve descriptors, for example slot descriptors or
getset descriptors on objects implemented in C. The descriptor object
is returned instead of the underlying attribute.
You can handle these with code like the following. Note that
for arbitrary getset descriptors invoking these may trigger
code execution:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre># example code for resolving the builtin descriptor types
class _foo:
 __slots__ = [&#39;foo&#39;]

slot_descriptor = type(_foo.foo)
getset_descriptor = type(type(open(__file__)).name)
wrapper_descriptor = type(str.__dict__[&#39;__add__&#39;])
descriptor_types = (slot_descriptor, getset_descriptor, wrapper_descriptor)

result = getattr_static(some_object, &#39;foo&#39;)
if type(result) in descriptor_types:
 try:
 result = result.__get__()
 except AttributeError:
 # descriptors can raise AttributeError to
 # indicate there is no underlying value
 # in which case the descriptor itself will
 # have to do
 pass
</pre></div>
</div>
</section>
<section id="current-state-of-generators-and-coroutines">
<h2>Current State of Generators and Coroutines<a class="headerlink" href="#current-state-of-generators-and-coroutines" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
When implementing coroutine schedulers and for other advanced uses of
generators, it is useful to determine whether a generator is currently
executing, is waiting to start or resume or execution, or has already
terminated. <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getgeneratorstate" title="inspect.getgeneratorstate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">getgeneratorstate()</code></a> allows the current state of a
generator to be determined easily.
<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getgeneratorstate">
inspect.getgeneratorstate(generator)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getgeneratorstate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Get current state of a generator-iterator.
<dl class="simple">
<dt>Possible states are:</dt><dd><ul class="simple">
<li>GEN_CREATED: Waiting to start execution.</li>
<li>GEN_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter.</li>
<li>GEN_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at a yield expression.</li>
<li>GEN_CLOSED: Execution has completed.</li>
</ul>
</dd>
</dl>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.2.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getcoroutinestate">
inspect.getcoroutinestate(coroutine)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getcoroutinestate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Get current state of a coroutine object. The function is intended to be
used with coroutine objects created by <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#async-def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">async def</code></a> functions, but
will accept any coroutine-like object that has <code class="docutils literal notranslate">cr_running</code> and
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">cr_frame</code> attributes.
<dl class="simple">
<dt>Possible states are:</dt><dd><ul class="simple">
<li>CORO_CREATED: Waiting to start execution.</li>
<li>CORO_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter.</li>
<li>CORO_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at an await expression.</li>
<li>CORO_CLOSED: Execution has completed.</li>
</ul>
</dd>
</dl>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.5.
</div>
</dd></dl>

The current internal state of the generator can also be queried. This is
mostly useful for testing purposes, to ensure that internal state is being
updated as expected:
<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getgeneratorlocals">
inspect.getgeneratorlocals(generator)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getgeneratorlocals" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Get the mapping of live local variables in generator to their current
values. A dictionary is returned that maps from variable names to values.
This is the equivalent of calling <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#locals" title="locals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">locals()</code></a> in the body of the
generator, and all the same caveats apply.
If generator is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator">generator</a> with no currently associated frame,
then an empty dictionary is returned. <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">TypeError</code></a> is raised if
generator is not a Python generator object.
<div class="impl-detail compound">
CPython implementation detail: This function relies on the generator exposing a Python stack frame
for introspection, which isn’t guaranteed to be the case in all
implementations of Python. In such cases, this function will always
return an empty dictionary.
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.3.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getcoroutinelocals">
inspect.getcoroutinelocals(coroutine)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getcoroutinelocals" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>This function is analogous to <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getgeneratorlocals" title="inspect.getgeneratorlocals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">getgeneratorlocals()</code></a>, but
works for coroutine objects created by <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#async-def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">async def</code></a> functions.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.5.
</div>
</dd></dl>

</section>
<section id="code-objects-bit-flags">
<h2>Code Objects Bit Flags<a class="headerlink" href="#code-objects-bit-flags" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
Python code objects have a <code class="docutils literal notranslate">co_flags</code> attribute, which is a bitmap of
the following flags:
<dl class="py data">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.CO_OPTIMIZED">
inspect.CO_OPTIMIZED<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.CO_OPTIMIZED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The code object is optimized, using fast locals.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py data">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.CO_NEWLOCALS">
inspect.CO_NEWLOCALS<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.CO_NEWLOCALS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>If set, a new dict will be created for the frame’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate">f_locals</code> when
the code object is executed.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py data">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.CO_VARARGS">
inspect.CO_VARARGS<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.CO_VARARGS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The code object has a variable positional parameter (<code class="docutils literal notranslate">*args</code>-like).
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py data">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.CO_VARKEYWORDS">
inspect.CO_VARKEYWORDS<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.CO_VARKEYWORDS" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The code object has a variable keyword parameter (<code class="docutils literal notranslate">**kwargs</code>-like).
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py data">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.CO_NESTED">
inspect.CO_NESTED<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.CO_NESTED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The flag is set when the code object is a nested function.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py data">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.CO_GENERATOR">
inspect.CO_GENERATOR<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.CO_GENERATOR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The flag is set when the code object is a generator function, i.e.
a generator object is returned when the code object is executed.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py data">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.CO_NOFREE">
inspect.CO_NOFREE<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.CO_NOFREE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The flag is set if there are no free or cell variables.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py data">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.CO_COROUTINE">
inspect.CO_COROUTINE<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.CO_COROUTINE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The flag is set when the code object is a coroutine function.
When the code object is executed it returns a coroutine object.
See <a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0492">PEP 492</a> for more details.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.5.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py data">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE">
inspect.CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The flag is used to transform generators into generator-based
coroutines. Generator objects with this flag can be used in
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">await</code> expression, and can <code class="docutils literal notranslate">yield from</code> coroutine objects.
See <a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0492">PEP 492</a> for more details.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.5.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py data">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR">
inspect.CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The flag is set when the code object is an asynchronous generator
function. When the code object is executed it returns an
asynchronous generator object. See <a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0525">PEP 525</a> for more details.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.6.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<div class="admonition note">
Note
The flags are specific to CPython, and may not be defined in other
Python implementations. Furthermore, the flags are an implementation
detail, and can be removed or deprecated in future Python releases.
It’s recommended to use public APIs from the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">inspect</code></a> module
for any introspection needs.
</div>
</section>
<section id="command-line-interface">
<h2>Command Line Interface<a class="headerlink" href="#command-line-interface" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">inspect</code></a> module also provides a basic introspection capability
from the command line.
By default, accepts the name of a module and prints the source of that
module. A class or function within the module can be printed instead by
appended a colon and the qualified name of the target object.
<dl class="std cmdoption">
<dt class="sig sig-object std" id="cmdoption-inspect-details">
--details<a class="headerlink" href="#cmdoption-inspect-details" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Print information about the specified object rather than the source code
</dd></dl>

</section>
</section>

<div class="clearer"></div>
 </div>
 </div>
 </div>
 <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
 <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
 <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
 <ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">inspect</code> — Inspect live objects</a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#types-and-members">Types and members</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#retrieving-source-code">Retrieving source code</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#introspecting-callables-with-the-signature-object">Introspecting callables with the Signature object</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#classes-and-functions">Classes and functions</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-interpreter-stack">The interpreter stack</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#fetching-attributes-statically">Fetching attributes statically</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#current-state-of-generators-and-coroutines">Current State of Generators and Coroutines</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#code-objects-bit-flags">Code Objects Bit Flags</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#command-line-interface">Command Line Interface</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>

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